[00:00.00]Narrator: Listen to part of a lecture in a philosophy class.
[00:04.50]FEMALE PROFESSOR: OK. Another ancient Greek philosopher we need to discuss is Aristotle–Aristotle's ethical theory. [00:11.62]What Aristotle's ethical theory is all about is this: he's trying to show you how to be happy–what true happiness is.[00:20.49]Now, why is he interested in human happiness? [00:24.07]It's not just because it's something that all people want or aim for. [00:28.52]It's more than that. [00:29.74]But to get there we need to first make a very important distinction.
[00:34.19]Let me introduce a couple of technical terms: extrinsic value and intrinsic value. [00:40.91]To understand Aristotle's interest in happiness, you need to understand this distinction.[00:50.44]Some things we aim for and value, not for themselves but for what they bring about … in addition to themselves. [00:58.44]If I value something as a means to something else, then it has what we will call "extrinsic value." [01:05.33]Other things we desire and hold to be valuable for themselves alone. [01:10.30]If we value something not as a means to something else, but for its own sake, let us say that it has "intrinsic value."
[01:18.99]Exercise. There may be some people who value exercise for itself, but I don't. [01:25.21]I value exercise because if I exercise, I tend to stay healthier than I would if I didn't. [01:32.00]So I desire to engage in exercise and I value exercise extrinsically...not for its own sake, but as a means to something beyond it. [01:42.22]It brings me good health.
[01:43.68]Health. Why do I value good health? [01:46.87]Well, here it gets a little more complicated for me. [01:49.90]Um, health is important for me because I can't...do other things I want to do–play music, teach philosophy–if I'm ill. [01:59.30]So health is important to me–has value to me–as a means to a productive life. [02:05.47]But health is also important to me because I just kind of like to be healthy–it feels good. [02:12.36]It's pleasant to be healthy, unpleasant not to be. [02:15.86]So to some degree I value health both for itself and as a means to something else: productivity. [02:23.54]It's got extrinsic and intrinsic value for me.
[02:27.64]Then there's some things that are just valued for themselves. [02:31.69]I'm a musician, not a professional musician; I just play a musical instrument for fun. [02:36.79]Why do I value playing music? [02:39.30]Well, like most amateur musicians, I only play because, well, I just enjoy it. [02:45.09]It's something that's an end in itself.
[02:47.39]No , something else I value is teaching. [02:55.39]Why? Well, it brings in a modest income, but I could make more money doing other things. [03:01.86]I'd do it even if they didn't pay me. [03:04.74]I just enjoy teaching. [03:06.10]In that sense it's an end to itself.[03:09.23]But teaching's not something that has intrinsic value for all people–and that's true generally.
[03:15.71]Most things that are enjoyed in and of themselves vary from person to person. [03:20.78]Some people value teaching intrinsically, but others don't.[03:25.22]So how does all this relate to human happiness? [03:28.51]Well, Aristotle asks: is there something that all human beings value...and value only intrinsically, for its own sake and only for its own sake?
[03:39.06]If you could find such a thing, that would be the universal final good, or truly the ultimate purpose or goal for all human beings. [03:48.78]Aristotle thought the answer was yes. [03:51.24]What is it? [03:52.33]Happiness. Everyone will agree, he argues, that happiness is the ultimate end...to be valued for itself and really only for itself. [04:02.08]For what other purpose is there in being happy? [04:05.47]What does it yield.[04:07.09]The attainment of happiness becomes the ultimate or highest good for Aristotle.
[04:12.27]The next question that Aristotle raises is: what is happiness? [04:17.28]We all want it; we all desire it; we all seek it. [04:21.04]It's the goal we have in life. [04:23.13]But what is it? [04:24.70]How do we find it? [04:26.21]Here he notes, with some frustration, people disagree.[04:30.60]But he does give us a couple of criteria, or features, to keep in mind as we look for what true human happiness is.
[04:38.60]True human happiness should be, as he puts it, complete.[04:42.98]Complete in that it's all we require. [04:46.38]Well, true human happiness...if you had that, what else do you need? Nothing.[04:52.08]And, second, true happiness should be something that I can obtain on my own. [04:57.14]I shouldn't have to rely on other people for it.
[04:59.96]Many people value fame and seek fame. [05:03.15]Fame for them becomes the goal. [05:05.34]But, according to Aristotle, this won't work either, because fame depends altogether too much on other people. [05:12.71]I can't get it on my own, without help from other people.[05:16.47]In the end, Aristotle says that true happiness is the exercise of reason–a life of intellectual contemplation...of thinking. [05:26.01]So let's see how he comes to that.
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